Climate Change Administration

The Dubai Agreement explicitly incorporated “fossil fuels” into COP decision text for the first time, calling to:

• Transition away from fossil fuels, especially unabated coal
• Triple global renewable energy capacity and double energy efficiency improvement rates by 2030
• Encourage countries to cancel inefficient fossil fuel subsidies and scale up clean energy investment
• Reduce methane and other short-lived climate pollutants
• The Global Decarbonization Accelerator (GDA) was also launched, structured around three pillars: (1) renewable energy transition, (2) energy-efficiency doubling, and (3) decarbonization of methane and heavy industry.

COP28 made major advances on adaptation, adopting the Global Goal on Adaptation Framework and outlining key directions and targets:

• Milestones up to 2030:

  key results to reach by 2030 as set by the GGA Framework include

  • Impacts, vulnerability and risk assessment: countries should complete overall climate risk and vulnerability assessments by 2030 to provide bases for adaptation decisions
  • Early warning systems for multi-hazard events: all countries must be equipped with early warning and monitoring abilities by 2027
  • Climate information services: decision-oriented climate information and services should be popularized by 2030
  • National Adaptation Plans, (NAPs): countries should complete inclusive, gender-responsive, transparent NAPs
  • Monitoring, evaluation and learning systems: develop systematic systems to track outcomes of adaptation actions and ensure policy feedback loops

• Thematic Priority Areas:

  the GGA Framework defines seven key fields as global adaptation focuses until 2030

  • Water Resources
  • Food and Agriculture
  • Health
  • Biodiversity
  • Human Settlements
  • Social Protection
  • Culture

• Institutional arrangements and future works:

  to ensure the implementation of the GGA Framework, COP28 agreed to

  • A two-year Indicator Work Program that develops measurable and trackable metrics
  • Explore the applicability of the Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) principle in adaptation, ensuring developing countries receive adequate funding and capacity support

  • Loss and Damage Fund

    Following COP27’s decision, COP28 officially launched the Loss and Damage Fund, with the World Bank as interim host. Over US$800 million was pledged on the first day by countries including the UAE, Germany, the UK, US, and Japan. The fund will begin accepting applications from the most vulnerable countries in 2024 for climate disaster recovery, rebuilding, and disaster prevention projects.

  • Climate finance and NCQG

    Climate finance remained a focus in negotiations. Although developed countries approached the US$100 billion annual goal, the funds were still inadequate for a global net zero transition. Parties agreed to finalize the new NCQG by 2024’s COP29, reflecting developing countries’ needs and equity principles, while urging reforms of multilateral development banks to enhance risk-taking and leverage benefits in order to reinforce private investment.

  • International cooperation and market mechanisms (Article 6)

    In terms of market and non-market cooperation mechanisms:

    • Article 6.2, cooperation methods: finalized initial report templates and digital submission system designs, reinforcing national-level adjustment procedures
    • Article 6.4, Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM): the monitoring institution drafted methodologies for the SDM, though consensus on permanent removal and carbon capture accounting principles were deferred
    • Article 6.8, Non-Market Approaches (NMA): endorsed the framework for the information platform and interim progress report

    Parties were also encouraged to build High-Integrity Carbon Markets to ensure transparency and prevent double counting and greenwashing.

  • Overall observations

    COP28’s “UAE Consensus” marked the Paris Agreement’s shift to full-scale implementation and oversight, linking the GST with energy transition, adaptation frameworks, and finance mechanisms. The first inclusion of “phasing out fossil fuels” signaled a turning point in global energy restructuring. For Taiwan, these developments provide crucial alignment points for carbon market engagement, climate finance flows, and just transition strategies. These may be important references to Taiwan’s efforts in international action, enhancing global cooperation and exchange under Article 6 mechanisms to advance net zero and sustainability goals.

The landmark outcome of COP27 was the decision to establish the Loss and Damage Fund, signaling the transition of the issue from concept to operational finance. The creation of a Transitional Committee was agreed to propose funding sources, governance framework, and allocation principles before COP28 in 2023. The Santiago Network was also activated to provide technical support and capacity-building for vulnerable Parties confronting climate change impacts.

The Glasgow-Sharm el-Sheikh Work Programme (GlaSS) was established in COP26, and the GGA process was also launched to balance endeavors between adaptation and mitigation. Parties agreed to propose specific methodologies and evaluational frameworks before COP28 for further collective progress assessment under the first Global Stocktake (GST). The Adaptation Fund received US$230 million in new investments, with a goal of reaching US$40 billion by 2025, while the functions of Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) were strengthened to support vulnerable and island countries’ adaptation actions.

Responding to the IPCC 6th Assessment Report (IPCC AR6), the Mitigation Work Programme was adopted in COP27, pursuing stronger pre-2030 mitigation actions and assessing progresses through convening biannual Global Dialogues. The MWP covers energy transition, governance management of non-CO₂ greenhouse gases (such as methane), just transition, and cross-sectoral cooperation, which emphasizing in voluntary basis, non-punitive principles, in light of different national circumstances. Parties were urged to update existing NDCs by the end of 2023 to enhance efforts toward the 1.5℃ target.

Climate Finance remained a focus of negotiations. The decisions of COP27 noted that annual investments of US$4-6 trillion is required for global low-carbon economic transition and called for financial reform to redirect finance flows toward sustainable investments. It expressed serious concerns over developed countries’ unmet yearly US$100 billion pledges and decided to set up a new NCQG by 2024 to reflect needs and priorities on developing countries. Meanwhile, the G7 nations also launched the Global Shield Financing Facility to strengthen resilience in nations affected by disasters.

The COP27 negotiation conclusions under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement were including:

Regarding Article 4.10 of the Paris Agreement on Common time frames (CTF) for NDCs, it is decided that Parties are encouraged to submit updated NDCs covering the period up to 2035 by the year 2025, and to submit NDC updates concerning the 2040 targets in 2030. The CMA also decided that, starting from CMA4 in 2022, a high-level ministerial roundtable will be convened annually to discuss pre-2030 ambitions.

• Article 6.2: The negotiations of the Cooperation Approaches are decided to complete guidance on tracking and reporting, expert review, and templates of the Initial Report.
• Article 6.4: The negotiations of the Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism (PACM) are decided to confirm operational rules for the Supervisory Body of the A6.4M, while the rules of removal activities and A6.4M registry will be decided before COP28.
• Article 6.8: The negotiations of the Non-Market Approaches (NMA) are decided to launch of the 2023-2024 working program for establishing the NMA platform to promote practical experiences sharing.

In response to the UN secretary-general’s call, during the COP27, main stakeholders also echoed to strengthen anti-greenwashing principles, setting five net zero pledge criteria that require corporations and countries to disclose transparent, verifiable mitigation actions and avoid nominal declarations. Meanwhile, the US launched the Energy Transition Accelerator (ETA) as a new public-private cooperation mechanism to facilitate renewable energy investment in developing countries.

Under demands on Article 14 of the Paris Agreement, the GST is to be conducted every five years to assess collective progress. The first GST began in COP26 and advanced to its second-phase technical dialogue in COP27, focusing on mitigation, adaptation, loss and damage, finance, and capacity-building. Final outcomes were scheduled for publication in COP28 in 2023 to inform Parties for their consideration of 2025 NDC updates.

The COP27 outcomes of the Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan marked the Paris Agreement’s transition into a full implementation phase. Institutionalizing Loss and Damage signified a markable outcome that the UNFCCC progress turn from endless negotiation to action. The greening of financial systems and rise of anti-greenwashing standards highlight a new phase of climate governance emphasizing transparency, accountability, and just transition. These achievement provide significant governance directions in future to strengthen green finance frameworks, carbon market integration, and international cooperation planning for adopting mitigation and adaptation strategies evenly in promoting net zero transition and sustainable development in Taiwan.

Parties called for scaling up actions and support—including finance, capacity-building, and technology transfer—to enhance adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience, and reduce vulnerability to climate change, consistent with the best available science and national development priorities. On adaptation communications, Parties are requested to submit adaptation communications before CMA4 (2022). To clarify the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) and its significance, Parties established the Glasgow–Sharm el-Sheikh work programme for a two-year period.

On adaptation finance, while welcoming new pledges by developed country Parties, the Pact strengthens the roles of the Adaptation Fund and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), and urges multilateral development banks to leverage climate finance to mobilize private investment and foster innovative tools. Developed country Parties are urged to at least double their 2025 collective provision of adaptation finance from 2019 levels.

Beyond pursuing the long-term temperature goal of well below 2 °C, Parties stressed efforts to limit warming to 1.5 °C, which would substantially reduce the impacts of climate change. Achieving 1.5 °C requires rapid, deep, and sustained global emissions reductions, including reducing global CO₂ emissions by about 45% by 2030 relative to 2010, and achieving net-zero around mid-century. Action should be informed by the best available science and equity, acknowledging common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) and national circumstances, while supporting sustainable development and poverty eradication.

Parties welcomed and encouraged the submission of new or updated NDCs, long-term low-emission development strategies (LT-LEDS/LTS), and related actions in line with the temperature goals. With the Paris Agreement work programme (rulebook) concluded, Parties established a new work programme to accelerate and scale up mitigation in 2021–2030.

To strengthen global GHG mitigation, Parties aim to reduce non-CO₂ greenhouse gases by 2030, including methane. Parties were called upon to advance, deploy, and diffuse technologies and adopt policies for a low-emission energy system, including accelerating clean power and energy-efficiency, the phasedown of coal and the phase-out of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies, in support of a just transition.

Developed country Parties are urged to provide enhanced support to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation, including finance, technology transfer, and capacity-building. Recognizing the impacts of COVID-19, developing countries’ needs have increased. Building on the Paris Agreement, Parties reaffirmed the collective goal for developed countries to mobilize USD 100 billion per year in climate finance by 2025 (noting the goal should have been met by 2020), and advanced the Climate Finance Delivery Plan: Meeting the USD 100 Billion Goal. Operating entities of the Financial Mechanism, MDBs, and financial institutions are urged to scale up investments in climate action (Paris Agreement Article 9.5), including technology development and transfer for mitigation and adaptation, to foster an enabling environment with predictable and sustainable finance. On capacity-building, Parties welcomed the commitments and efforts under the COP26 Catalyst for Climate Action.

Recognizing that climate change is already causing and increasing loss and damage—through both extreme weather events and slow-onset events—Parties sought to enhance support for activities addressing loss and damage via operating entities of the Financial Mechanism, relevant UN organizations and funds, and other bilateral and multilateral institutions and the private sector. Collaboration is to be facilitated through the Santiago Network.

Many Parties had submitted updated or second NDCs, strengthening ambition through 2030. Parties that had not submitted updated NDCs were strongly urged to do so in 2022 (pursuant to Paris Agreement Articles 3, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 4.11). The secretariat will annually update the NDC synthesis report, and leaders are expected to reconvene at COP28 (2023) to reinforce ambition. All efforts should ensure a just transition and promote sustainable development, poverty eradication, and decent work. On long-term strategies under Article 4.19, a synthesis of Parties’ LT-LEDS was to be prepared before CMA4 (2022) to inform discussions on aggregate long-term ambition.

On common time frames (Article 4.10), Parties are encouraged to submit in 2025 updated NDCs covering up to 2035, and in 2030 to submit NDC updates concerning 2040. The CMA also decided to convene an annual high-level ministerial roundtable on pre-2030 ambition starting at CMA4 (2022).

On transparency, agreement was reached on electronic reporting tables and modalities under the Enhanced Transparency Framework (Article 13); the rulebook elements for the NDC registry (Article 4.12) and the adaptation communication registry (Article 7.12) were also finalized.

Under Article 6:
Article 6.2 – Cooperative approaches: A framework was established under which Parties may engage in bilateral/multilateral cooperation. Following verification, internationally transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs) may be generated and transferred across borders.
Article 6.4 – Mechanism (often referred to as the Sustainable Development Mechanism): A mechanism for project-based international mitigation will generate A6.4ERs; after first transfer to a host Party’s account, these units may be converted to ITMOs for international transfer.
Article 6.8 – Non-market approaches (NMA): The Glasgow Committee on Non-Market Approaches (Glasgow NMA Committee) was established to identify and advance NMA activities, including clean-energy technology development, mitigation measures that accelerate sustainable development, standards and methodologies, capacity-building, finance, and adaptation.

Parties agreed to continue the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action to raise ambition, empower High-Level Champions, and strengthen the platform for non-state actors. Parties also requested immediate implementation of the Glasgow Work Programme on Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE), advancing human rights and gender equality considerations. For local communities and Indigenous Peoples, a three-year work plan (2022–2024) is to be advanced under their dedicated platform.